People in the Amazon Rainforest

By Rhett A. Butler [April 1, 2019]

The Amazon has a long history of human settlement. Contrary to popular belief, sizable and complex societies thrived in the Amazon rainforest long before European contact [Amazon Civilization Before Columbus]. These societies produced sophisticated pottery, cultivated crops, and managed forests to optimize the distribution of useful species. The idea of a "pristine" Amazon is largely a misconception, stemming from the population collapse following European arrival in the sixteenth century. Research indicates that approximately 11.8 percent of the Amazon's terra firme forests are anthropogenic, shaped by the intentional stewardship of biodiversity by Indigenous peoples. However, unlike contemporary large-scale agriculture, these Amazonians cultivated the land with deep ecological knowledge accumulated over millennia, ensuring sustainability through a mosaic of natural forests, open fields, and managed ecosystems rich in culturally significant species.

Many of these societies flourished along whitewater rivers, benefiting from fertile floodplain soils, abundant fish stocks, and efficient transportation routes. However, these were also the first communities to suffer the impacts of European incursions, as colonizers used the rivers as highways into the interior. In the first century of European contact, Indigenous populations declined by an estimated 90 percent due to disease, violence, and displacement. Those who survived often retreated deeper into the forest, either as a means of protection or because they traditionally lived in smaller, more dispersed groups.

From Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire to the decline of the Brazilian rubber boom in the early 20th century, the Spanish and Portuguese, often under the guise of religious conversion and with papal endorsement, subjected Indigenous peoples to profound exploitation and violence. This legacy of dispossession continued with the expansion of colonial settlements, the rubber industry, and modern land development.

Amazonians Today

Despite historical population losses, Indigenous peoples continue to live throughout the Amazon rainforest, though virtually all communities have been influenced by the outside world. Many have integrated modern tools and materials into their daily lives, using metal cookware and contemporary clothing instead of exclusively relying on traditional attire and methods. Some communities produce handicrafts for sale to tourists, while others travel to urban centers to trade goods or access services.

Few Indigenous groups rely solely on nomadic hunting and gathering for sustenance. Most cultivate crops, supplementing their diets with hunting, fishing, and foraging. Typically, families maintain two types of gardens: a small home garden with diverse plants and a larger field, often about one hectare, where staple crops such as bananas, manioc, and rice are grown. These fields are traditionally cleared using rotational slash-and-burn techniques, which—when practiced sustainably—allow for forest regeneration and do not lead to permanent deforestation.

While most forest-dwelling Indigenous groups have engaged with the broader world to varying degrees, several dozen communities in Brazil and Peru remain in voluntary isolation. Often referred to as "uncontacted tribes," these groups actively avoid outside contact, seeking to preserve their autonomy and way of life.

Indigenous groups living in voluntary isolation in the Amazon (2015 estimates)

The total Indigenous population in the Amazon Basin is difficult to quantify, but approximately 20 million people across eight Amazonian countries and French Guiana are classified as Indigenous. While two-thirds of Peru’s Indigenous population is often counted within this figure, many live in the highlands rather than the Amazon itself.

Indigenous People and Conservation

Historically, conservation efforts have sometimes been seen as conflicting with Indigenous land rights. However, policymakers increasingly recognize the crucial role Indigenous peoples play in environmental stewardship. Research indicates that deforestation and illegal incursions are less common in Indigenous territories than in conventional protected areas. A 2006 study by the Woods Hole Research Center and the Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazonia found that parks and Indigenous reserves in the Amazon significantly slow deforestation, as demonstrated through satellite data analysis.

Ethnobotanist Mark Plotkin, founder of the Amazon Conservation Team, underscores the protective role of Indigenous communities:

"As an illegal logger or miner, would you rather invade a national park patrolled by just a few rangers or an Indigenous territory where people will fiercely defend their land with their lives?"

Today, Indigenous Amazonians are at the forefront of conservation efforts, embracing technology and policy mechanisms to safeguard their forests and traditions.

Brazil's Indigenous Population

Brazil has designated extensive tracts of forest as Indigenous territories—approximately 12.5 percent of its total land area and 26.4 percent of the Amazon basin—providing a legal framework for Indigenous land rights. These reserves, formalized under Brazil’s 1988 constitution, have supported the resurgence of Indigenous populations after centuries of decline. Sixty percent of Brazil’s Indigenous population resides in the Amazon.

However, these protected areas face ongoing challenges. Some landowners, farmers, and developers oppose the establishment of new reserves and frequently engage in illegal activities such as logging, mining, and land grabbing within protected territories.

Largest Cities in the Amazon:
While much of the Amazon remains sparsely populated, significant urban centers have developed within the rainforest. These cities serve as economic hubs, linking the Amazon to broader national and international markets.

Amazon rainforest section contents: