Sulawesi
By Jeremy Hance
FACTS ON SULAWESI
Land Areas: 174,600 square kilometers, making it the world’s 11th largest island (67, 413 square miles, 17.4 million hectares, or 43 million acres)
Human Population: 16 million (2005)
Country: Indonesia
Biodiversity: 1450 birds, 127 mammals, 5,972 vascular plants (2,225 of which are endemic)
Percent Forest Cover: Around 20%
Deforestation Rate: 2.35 percent annually between 1985-1997)
Causes of Deforestation: Agriculture, logging, and mining
OVERVIEW: SULAWESI
Shaped like a lower-case 'k', the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is the world’s eleventh largest island. A treasure-trove of biodiversity with a startling number of endemic species (species that are found no-where else in the world), Sulawesi—formerly known as Celebes—has only recently become a target of conservationists. While much of the island remains unstudied by researchers much of its forest habitat has already been lost.
The tropical forests—which once covered the whole island—have been broadly deforested by agriculture, logging, and mining. The process accelerated in the late 20th Century when the government began supporting commercial logging and large agriculture projects. Locals also began converting forests into cash crops.
A study in 2007 found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest is gone or degraded, including almost the entirety of Sulawesi’s rich lowland rainforest and mangroves. The study further speculated that little deforestation in the future is possible since most of forest land that was useful for cultivation and logging is already gone. With few attractive commercial trees, Sulawesi’s highland forests have fared better, though many have suffered from degradation.
SULAWESI'S GEOGRAPHY
At 174,600 square kilometers, Sulawesi is the world's eleventh largest island just after Ellesmere Island in Canada. It is famously described as a big island with no interior, given that the island consists almost entirely of four interconnecting peninsulas.
Its large and winding coastline measures 6,000 kilometers. The island is surrounded on all sides by other big islands: Borneo to the west, Philippines to the north, the Maluku islands to the east, and Flores and Timor to the south.
Politically, Sulawesi is split into six Indonesian provinces: Mamuju (West Sulawesi), Manado (North Sulawesi), Palu (Central Sulawesi), Makassar (South Sulawesi), Kendari (Southeast Sulawesi), and Gorontalo. With 1.25 million people, Makassar is the largest city on the island; it rests on the southwestern peninsula.
The strange shape of Sulawesi—five connected peninsulas with little to hold them together—was created by a collision of multiple plates originating from Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands.
The island contains thirteen freshwater lakes including the deepest lake, Matano, in Southeast Asia.
SULAWESI'S ECONOMY
Sulawesi is largely dependent on crops and seafood for its economy: in 2004 agriculture made up 34 percent of Sulawesi's economy. Crops important to Sulawesi's economy include coconuts, nutmeg, soy, coffee, and rice. The island is one of the world's largest producers of cacao. It also produces a lot of cloves for kretek cigarettes.
Fishing, and increasingly aquaculture, has become important to Sulawesi's economy. Fish ponds and shrimp aquaculture has replaced much of the island's mangroves.
Other economic industries include commercial timber such as teak and rattan and tourism, which is seen as increasingly important by the government.
In 2004, 16.7 percent of Sulawesi's population were considered to be living in poverty. Most of the poor live in rural areas.
BIODIVERSITY PROFILE OF SULAWESI
Sulawesi has a remarkable diversity of terrestrial flora and fauna and rich coastal marine life. Since the unique island sits on Wallace's Line it harbors species of both Asian and
Australasian ancestors, though the majority are Australasian in origin.
On land, the percentage of endemic species is particularly noteworthy. Of 127 known mammals, 72 are endemic, making for one of the highest rates of endemic mammals in the world (62 percent). When bats are excluded—since they have better potential for migration—the percentage leaps to an astounding 98 percent. In addition, 34 percent of Sulawesi’s nearly 1500 birds are endemic.
Other fauna are unfortunately little studied. Twenty-five species of amphibian are known, forty lizards, and at least 52 terrestrial snakes. In addition, there are 38 species of large swallow-tailed butterfly, which so entranced Alfred Russell Wallace on his visit to the island. Researchers have also found 67 endemic species of fish in Sulawesi's dwindling mangrove forests.
Some standouts include:
- Two wild cattle species, the Lowland anoa and the Mountain anoa. Both are listed as Endangered by the IUCN, little is known about these animals but they are heavily hunted for food and their horns.
- The babirusa, also known as 'pig-deer, comprises three species of pig. Each male babirusa sports a set of four tusks, two of which stick through their snout. All three species are threatened with extinction.
- The mysterious and little-studied Sulawesi palm civet which is classified as Vulnerable. This predator lives and hunts in a wide-variety of habitats.
- The Crested black macaque is called the most threatened primate on Sulawesi. It is killed for bushmeat and caught for the pet trade. In addition, deforestation and mining have taken a large toll on its habitat. They used to occur in groups of over 100, but no longer. The species is considered Critically Endangered.
- The maleo is an Endangered chicken-sized bird. They nest in traditional sites, over a third of which have been abandoned recently due to human impact. They lay one massive egg in meter-deep pits, which humans sometimes poach for food.
The island's biodiversity is ripe for more discovery and study.
PLANT DIVERSITY IN SULAWESI
According to Middleton et al 2019, Sulawesi has 5,972 described species of vascular plants, of which 2,225 are endemic.
MARINE PROFILE
Sulawesi is surrounded by rich seas with large habitats of seagrass and coral reefs. These habitats are home to leatherback, hawksbill, and green sea turtles, as well as dugongs and six of the world's seven giant clam species. Whales that use the waters as a by-way include sperm whales, pygmy sperm whales, and killer whales.
One of the marine biodiversity standouts is the Sulawesi coelacanth. This is the second species of the prehistoric survivor and is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List because it is threatened as bycatch. The coelacanth is not a target for fishermen.
SULAWESI’S FORESTS
Sulawesi has a startling diversity of forest types: fourteen different forest ecosystems have been identified. The wide diversity of forests is part of the reason for the islands high rate of endemism and biodiversity.
Mangrove forests: found in estuaries and along Sulawesi's large coastline. At one time mangroves covered much of the coastlines, but most of these have been lost.
Montane forests: rising above 1,000 meters these forests are some of the most intact forests in Sulawesi. Lower montane forests are primarily made up of oak and chestnut species, while upper montane forests support a variety of conifers.
Monsoon forests: this unique forest type is little-studied. It receives the lowest amount of rain in all Indonesia and is able to survive long droughts. However, much of this forest type has been lost to grazing land.
Ultrabasic forests: a unique forest type that grows on nutrient-poor ultrabasic soil with little plant diversity, but high endemism since unique plants—like pitcher plants—have evolved to fill this niche. Ultrabasic forests are made up of short twisted trees. Few fauna live here.
Limestone forests: shallow soil and steep slopes make these forests low both in abundance and diversity. They are home to some endemic species like snails.
Peat swamp forest: though Sulawesi only has small areas of peat swamp forests they contain high biodiversity, especially of birds.
Freshwater swamp forests: like peat swamp forests, freshwater forests only cover a small area of Sulawesi. They are made up of palms, pandanus, and pitcher plants.
FOREST LOSS IN SULAWESI
Approximately 80 percent of Sulawesi's forests are either gone or degraded to some degree. Over 50 percent are considered in poor condition, while 30 percent—mostly in the highlands (above 1500 meters)—are classified as in good condition.
Over 95 percent of Sulawesi's mangrove forests and lowland forests are disturbed. In less than a decade—between the mid 1980s and 1993—Sulawesi mangroves have been decreased by over 60 percent in part due to aquaculture for seafood such as shrimp.
Wetlands have suffered even worse: 99 percent of the island's wetlands are either gone or damaged.
Current rates of forest loss are lower than much of Indonesia, but this is primarily because much of the island's lowland forest was already gone by as early as 1985.
Forest loss is due primarily to logging and conversion. Beginning in the 1970s the government began supporting large-scale logging and vast agricultural projects. Since then migrants from urban areas to the countryside have converted large tracks of forest into cash crops such as coffee and cacao.
| Million hectares | 2001 | 2010 | 2020 | Loss 2002-19 | % loss of 2001 cover |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary forest area | 9.8 | 9.5 | 9.0 | 0.8 | 8.2% |
| Tree cover area | 15.6 | 15.5 | 14.3 | 1.3 | 8.3% |
CURRENT THREATS
Large-scale loss of forest is not as big of a threat in Sulawesi as other islands in Indonesia, simply because there is relatively little forest left. However, deforestation of remaining forest would be catastrophic for the island's unique biodiversity, much of which are already threatened.
Since montane forests contain very few commercial species, they are relatively safe from loggers, but hunting, fires, and erosion due to cleared areas remain major threats.
Pollution and habitat destruction from mining poses a threat to biodiversity and ecosystem health. Mining is even reported to occur within the boundaries of protected areas.
Bushmeat hunting and poaching is a large issue for a number of endangered species, including anoa, babirusa, black crested macaques, and the maleo since its eggs are poached.
South Sulawesi, as opposed to north and central, is serviced by few parks and protected areas, leaving species and forests there particularly vulnerable.
PROTECTED AREAS
Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves.
Central Sulawesi contains the most well-known park on the island, Lore Lindu National Park spanning 229,000 hectares. It is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
On the northern peninsula, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park protects 300,000 square hectares, while Rawa Aopa Watmohai National Park protects 105,194 hectares in southeast Sulawesi.
Most of the parks, however, suffer frequent encroachment for illegal logging, mining, and even conversion into crops. Thousands of illegal gold miners have been found plying their trade in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park.
Sulawesi also has three national marine parks: Bunaken, Wakatobi, and Take Bonerate.
Bunaken National Park includes islands, mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. Taka Bonerate National Park protects the Taka Bonerate atoll (and surrounding coral reefs), the world's third largest atoll and the largest in Southeast Asia. Last but not least, Wakatobi National Park is made up of island chains and 25 coral reefs.
Babirusa
Forest and coconut plantation in North Sulawesi
Kingfisher
Crested black macaque
Crested black macaque
Flying dragon
Tarsier
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Green Vine Snake
Male and Female Knobbed Hornbill
Strangler fig
Mother tarsier and baby
More images at the Sulawesi slideshow
CITATIONS:
Sulawesi conservation news
Indonesia biomass zone for Japan and S. Korea energy razes rainforest in Sulawesi (28 Oct 2024 04:12:31 +0000)
- In 2022, Indonesia’s then-president, Joko Widodo, revoked hundreds of operating permits affecting millions of hectares of land previously zoned for new mines and plantations.
- A small proportion of this land has since been reallocated for “energy plantation forests,” in which an area is cleared to plant fast-growing trees that are later cut and chipped to replace some of the coal burned by power plants.
- On the island of Sulawesi, an Indonesian company is exporting wood pellets sourced from two firms that held oil palm licenses prior to the 2022 policy move.
- While biomass cofiring is accounted as a form of renewable energy, environmentalists object to clearing forests as a means of offsetting coal emissions.
Indonesia’s new ‘green’ capital drives environmental damage far and wide (27 Aug 2024 09:12:38 +0000)
- The design and development of Indonesia’s new capital city, Nusantara, is nowhere near as “green” or as “smart” as the government repeatedly claims it is, experts say.
- The government has certified the new presidential palace as meeting green building standards — which it defined itself — but its use of materials and energy indicate the opposite.
- Experts cite the “excessive” use of copper and brass for the main decorative element of the palace, noting the large carbon and pollution footprints associated with mining and processing this much metal.
- A report also identifies the obliteration of forested mountains on the island of Sulawesi to supply rocks for Nusantara on the island of Borneo, as well as the impacts of dust on communities living near the quarries.
Indonesia palm oil lobby pushes 1 million hectares of new Sulawesi plantations (08 Aug 2024 12:40:58 +0000)
- A state-owned palm oil company and an industry association have begun early work to push a vast new plantation strategy in Sulawesi, one of Indonesia’s largest islands.
- The proposal includes aspirations for production of a form of environmentally friendly fertilizer that the signatories to a document signed in May hope will enable producers to apply for climate finance incentives, despite the deforestation implied in the plan.
- Civil society groups told Mongabay Indonesia the fragile ecosystems in Sulawesi, which are already threatened by the region’s minerals boom for nickel, could not endure further shifts in land use, which would also further erode Indonesia’s ability to meet its international climate commitments.
Palm oil company fined for cheating; Sulawesi farmers to reap their due rupiah (26 Jul 2024 08:07:14 +0000)
- The Indonesian government has ordered palm oil company PT Hardaya Inti Plantations (HIP) to pay 1 billion rupiah ($61,000) in fines for violating Indonesian law by failing to pay farmers for harvests reaped from their land.
- In 2008, the farmers struck a deal with HIP in which the villagers would receive a cut of the company’s profits from palm fruit on the villagers’ land; this arrangement, known as plasma, is mandatory under Indonesian law.
- The farmer cooperative involved has accrued 8.8 billion rupiah ($543,000) in debt to state-owned lender Bank Mandiri.
Allegations widen against Indonesian palm oil giant Astra Agro Lestari (09 Jul 2024 04:10:34 +0000)
- Subsidiaries of Indonesia’s second-biggest palm oil company, PT Astra Agro Lestari (AAL), are running illegal plantations, grabbing community land, and intimidating critics, according to a new report by NGOs.
- The report is a follow-up to a 2022 report by Friends of the Earth, and identifies at least 1,100 hectares (2,718 acres) of the subsidiaries’ concessions that lie inside forest areas that should be off-limits to plantation activity.
- The NGOs also interviewed community members who say they weren’t consulted on the plantations in their midst and never gave their consent.
- The allegations of ongoing violations should prompt buyers of AAL’s palm oil and the financial institutions bankrolling its operations to put pressure on the company, FoE says.
Indonesia’s Avatar sea nomads enact Indigenous rules to protect octopus (20 Jun 2024 23:28:55 +0000)
- For generations the Bajo sea nomads from Indonesia’s Sulawesi region have relied on catching octopus to meet their economic and nutritional needs.
- However, in recent years catch volumes have declined and locals worry that overfishing and increasingly extreme weather threaten livelihoods providing for hundreds of families.
- In response the community began enacting seasonal limits in late 2022, closing the fishery for months at a time and imposing minimum weight restrictions on octopus that can be collected during the fishing season.
- Anecdotal testimony from fishers Mongabay Indonesia spoke with suggests income growth resulting from the policy has outpaced the regional minimum wage.
Indonesian fishers mount a community-led fight against destructive fishing (04 Jun 2024 16:25:54 +0000)
- In coastal communities across Indonesia, local fishers are pushing back against destructive and illegal fishing methods by organizing into volunteer patrol groups known as Pokmaswas.
- These groups have become crucial in protecting Indonesia’s vast marine resources amid limited government resources and infrastructure.
- In recognition of their importance, the government has increased financial support for Pokmaswas and aims to strengthen these community-run surveillance networks further.
- Mongabay Indonesia met with members of two groups, one on the island of Sulawesi and the other on Lombok, to find out the shared challenges they face, the role they play as educators, and their use of social media to promote their mission.
Indonesian palm oil firm clashes with villagers it allegedly shortchanged (04 Jun 2024 16:25:28 +0000)
- At least nine villagers in Indonesia’s Buol district have been injured in clashes with workers from a palm oil company with a history of corruption, land grabbing and other violations.
- PT Hardaya Inti Plantations (HIP) stands accused of harvesting palm fruit from the villagers’ land without paying them according to a profit-sharing agreement reached in 2008.
- In addition to the lost earnings, the villagers say they’ve run up massive amounts of debt, including to pay management fees to the company, and have reported HIP to the business competition regulator and to one of its biggest customers, commodity giant Wilmar International.
- HIP has a rocky history in Buol: its owner was jailed for bribing the district head to issue her the concession; it somehow managed to get a forest-clearing permit from the environment minister despite the clear-cut case of corruption; and it’s accused of planting oil palms on thousands of hectares outside its concession.
Fenced in by Sulawesi national park, Indigenous women make forestry breakout (18 Mar 2024 15:13:36 +0000)
- The Moa Indigenous community live in a remote region of Indonesia’s Central Sulawesi province, on the fringe of a national park established in the 1990s.
- The society’s customary rules and norms mandate matrilineal aspects, including that women in the community have responsibility for a type of subsistence farming known as pampa.
- Forestry economics professor Syukur Umar says a crucial boundary change made by the government has led to sudden shifts in the community’s forestry.
Activists slam ‘independent’ probe by Indonesian palm oil giant into violations (11 Dec 2023 14:04:24 +0000)
- A report commissioned by Indonesian palm oil giant Astra Agro Lestari into alleged violations allegedly by its subsidiaries on the island of Sulawesi failed to investigate key issues such as community rights, NGOs say.
- The investigation was triggered by multiple media and NGO reports on the long-running conflict between three AAL subsidiaries and local communities in Central Sulawesi province who allege the companies grabbed their land.
- The investigation failed to verify whether AAL’s subsidiaries had obtained the free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) of local and Indigenous communities before operating in the area, according to Walhi and Friends of the Earth US.
- Instead, the verification focused on proving whether the communities in the area had legal permits to their land that overlaps with AAL’s concessions, resulting in biased and inaccurate findings, the NGOs say.
Salty wells and lost land: Climate and erosion take their toll in Sulawesi (21 Nov 2023 17:43:01 +0000)
- Coastal erosion on the west coast of Indonesia’s Sulawesi Island is so advanced that seawater has penetrated the groundwater supply that tens of thousands use for drinking water.
- The communities have yet to be served by utility water provision, so families are resorting to costly supplies of water from private distributors.
- Research shows that rising seas and more frequent and powerful storms will accelerate coastal abrasion, raising burdens shouldered by the world’s coastal communities.
Indonesian islanders draw line in sand as Dubai-style reclamation nears (05 Oct 2023 01:11:29 +0000)
- Residents of the island of Lae-Lae off the Makassar seafront in eastern Indonesia are stepping up their opposition to a major reclamation project conceived in 2009.
- The community has staged seven demonstrations this year to press their opposition to the ongoing development, which they warn will decimate their near-shore fisheries.
- The provincial government has previously said the island’s population will not be required to move, and that Lae-Lae will derive economic benefits from the development.
Kellogg’s latest to freeze Indonesian supplier over palm oil violations (14 Sep 2023 14:59:03 +0000)
- U.S. cereal giant Kellogg’s has become the latest major consumer goods brand to suspend business ties with Indonesian palm oil giant Astra Agro Lestari (AAL).
- It joins the likes of Hershey’s, PepsiCo and Nestlé, which all stopped buying palm oil from AAL following a 2022 report alleging land grabbing, environmental degradation, and the criminal persecution of environmental and human rights defenders.
- AAL has denied the allegations and launched an independent investigation, but has not yet taken steps to remedy the harm allegedly done.
- Activists say the investigation unfairly puts the onus on local communities to prove their allegations against AAL, and have called on other consumer goods companies and investors to stand up to AAL.
Activists slam coal pollution from Indonesia’s production of ‘clean’ batteries (23 Aug 2023 11:32:58 +0000)
- Indonesia’s electric vehicle ambitions have seen it ramp up refining of nickel, a key component in EV batteries, at industrial estates springing up across the country.
- However, these smelters are powered by purpose-built coal-fired plants, which environmental activists say are causing illness, killing crops and polluting fish farms.
- Among the coal plants that activists say are polluting local villages are those that power the nickel smelters owned by Chinese companies PT Gunbuster Nickel Industry (GNI), PT Virtue Dragon Nickel Industry (VDNI) and PT Obsidian Stainless Steel (OSS).
- While Indonesia has stated its commitment to transitioning away from coal in powering its grid, these industry-exclusive “captive” plants aren’t subject to any kind of phaseout, and are in fact encouraged by regulation.
Captive to coal: Indonesia to burn even more fossil fuel for green tech (10 Aug 2023 16:42:49 +0000)
- Indonesia is building several new coal-fired power plants for industrial users, despite its stated commitment to start phasing out coal and transition to clean energy, according to a new report.
- These so-called captive coal plants will have a combined capacity of 13 gigawatts, accounting for more than two-thirds of the 18.8 GW of new coal power in the pipeline.
- Most of the plants will feed the nickel, cobalt and aluminum smelters that the government is promoting in an effort to turn Indonesia into a manufacturing hub for electric vehicles (EVs) and batteries.
- Critics say the building spree goes against both these green technology aspirations and Indonesia’s own climate commitments, but regulatory and funding loopholes mean the government can freely build more new captive coal plants.