Sulawesi
By Jeremy Hance
FACTS ON SULAWESI
Land Areas: 174,600 square kilometers, making it the world’s 11th largest island (67, 413 square miles, 17.4 million hectares, or 43 million acres)
Human Population: 16 million (2005)
Country: Indonesia
Biodiversity: 1450 birds, 127 mammals, 5,972 vascular plants (2,225 of which are endemic)
Percent Forest Cover: Around 20%
Deforestation Rate: 2.35 percent annually between 1985-1997)
Causes of Deforestation: Agriculture, logging, and mining
OVERVIEW: SULAWESI
Shaped like a lower-case 'k', the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is the world’s eleventh largest island. A treasure-trove of biodiversity with a startling number of endemic species (species that are found no-where else in the world), Sulawesi—formerly known as Celebes—has only recently become a target of conservationists. While much of the island remains unstudied by researchers much of its forest habitat has already been lost.
The tropical forests—which once covered the whole island—have been broadly deforested by agriculture, logging, and mining. The process accelerated in the late 20th Century when the government began supporting commercial logging and large agriculture projects. Locals also began converting forests into cash crops.
A study in 2007 found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest is gone or degraded, including almost the entirety of Sulawesi’s rich lowland rainforest and mangroves. The study further speculated that little deforestation in the future is possible since most of forest land that was useful for cultivation and logging is already gone. With few attractive commercial trees, Sulawesi’s highland forests have fared better, though many have suffered from degradation.
SULAWESI'S GEOGRAPHY
At 174,600 square kilometers, Sulawesi is the world's eleventh largest island just after Ellesmere Island in Canada. It is famously described as a big island with no interior, given that the island consists almost entirely of four interconnecting peninsulas.
Its large and winding coastline measures 6,000 kilometers. The island is surrounded on all sides by other big islands: Borneo to the west, Philippines to the north, the Maluku islands to the east, and Flores and Timor to the south.
Politically, Sulawesi is split into six Indonesian provinces: Mamuju (West Sulawesi), Manado (North Sulawesi), Palu (Central Sulawesi), Makassar (South Sulawesi), Kendari (Southeast Sulawesi), and Gorontalo. With 1.25 million people, Makassar is the largest city on the island; it rests on the southwestern peninsula.
The strange shape of Sulawesi—five connected peninsulas with little to hold them together—was created by a collision of multiple plates originating from Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands.
The island contains thirteen freshwater lakes including the deepest lake, Matano, in Southeast Asia.
SULAWESI'S ECONOMY
Sulawesi is largely dependent on crops and seafood for its economy: in 2004 agriculture made up 34 percent of Sulawesi's economy. Crops important to Sulawesi's economy include coconuts, nutmeg, soy, coffee, and rice. The island is one of the world's largest producers of cacao. It also produces a lot of cloves for kretek cigarettes.
Fishing, and increasingly aquaculture, has become important to Sulawesi's economy. Fish ponds and shrimp aquaculture has replaced much of the island's mangroves.
Other economic industries include commercial timber such as teak and rattan and tourism, which is seen as increasingly important by the government.
In 2004, 16.7 percent of Sulawesi's population were considered to be living in poverty. Most of the poor live in rural areas.
BIODIVERSITY PROFILE OF SULAWESI
Sulawesi has a remarkable diversity of terrestrial flora and fauna and rich coastal marine life. Since the unique island sits on Wallace's Line it harbors species of both Asian and
Australasian ancestors, though the majority are Australasian in origin.
On land, the percentage of endemic species is particularly noteworthy. Of 127 known mammals, 72 are endemic, making for one of the highest rates of endemic mammals in the world (62 percent). When bats are excluded—since they have better potential for migration—the percentage leaps to an astounding 98 percent. In addition, 34 percent of Sulawesi’s nearly 1500 birds are endemic.
Other fauna are unfortunately little studied. Twenty-five species of amphibian are known, forty lizards, and at least 52 terrestrial snakes. In addition, there are 38 species of large swallow-tailed butterfly, which so entranced Alfred Russell Wallace on his visit to the island. Researchers have also found 67 endemic species of fish in Sulawesi's dwindling mangrove forests.
Some standouts include:
- Two wild cattle species, the Lowland anoa and the Mountain anoa. Both are listed as Endangered by the IUCN, little is known about these animals but they are heavily hunted for food and their horns.
- The babirusa, also known as 'pig-deer, comprises three species of pig. Each male babirusa sports a set of four tusks, two of which stick through their snout. All three species are threatened with extinction.
- The mysterious and little-studied Sulawesi palm civet which is classified as Vulnerable. This predator lives and hunts in a wide-variety of habitats.
- The Crested black macaque is called the most threatened primate on Sulawesi. It is killed for bushmeat and caught for the pet trade. In addition, deforestation and mining have taken a large toll on its habitat. They used to occur in groups of over 100, but no longer. The species is considered Critically Endangered.
- The maleo is an Endangered chicken-sized bird. They nest in traditional sites, over a third of which have been abandoned recently due to human impact. They lay one massive egg in meter-deep pits, which humans sometimes poach for food.
The island's biodiversity is ripe for more discovery and study.
PLANT DIVERSITY IN SULAWESI
According to Middleton et al 2019, Sulawesi has 5,972 described species of vascular plants, of which 2,225 are endemic.
MARINE PROFILE
Sulawesi is surrounded by rich seas with large habitats of seagrass and coral reefs. These habitats are home to leatherback, hawksbill, and green sea turtles, as well as dugongs and six of the world's seven giant clam species. Whales that use the waters as a by-way include sperm whales, pygmy sperm whales, and killer whales.
One of the marine biodiversity standouts is the Sulawesi coelacanth. This is the second species of the prehistoric survivor and is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List because it is threatened as bycatch. The coelacanth is not a target for fishermen.
SULAWESI’S FORESTS
Sulawesi has a startling diversity of forest types: fourteen different forest ecosystems have been identified. The wide diversity of forests is part of the reason for the islands high rate of endemism and biodiversity.
Mangrove forests: found in estuaries and along Sulawesi's large coastline. At one time mangroves covered much of the coastlines, but most of these have been lost.
Montane forests: rising above 1,000 meters these forests are some of the most intact forests in Sulawesi. Lower montane forests are primarily made up of oak and chestnut species, while upper montane forests support a variety of conifers.
Monsoon forests: this unique forest type is little-studied. It receives the lowest amount of rain in all Indonesia and is able to survive long droughts. However, much of this forest type has been lost to grazing land.
Ultrabasic forests: a unique forest type that grows on nutrient-poor ultrabasic soil with little plant diversity, but high endemism since unique plants—like pitcher plants—have evolved to fill this niche. Ultrabasic forests are made up of short twisted trees. Few fauna live here.
Limestone forests: shallow soil and steep slopes make these forests low both in abundance and diversity. They are home to some endemic species like snails.
Peat swamp forest: though Sulawesi only has small areas of peat swamp forests they contain high biodiversity, especially of birds.
Freshwater swamp forests: like peat swamp forests, freshwater forests only cover a small area of Sulawesi. They are made up of palms, pandanus, and pitcher plants.
FOREST LOSS IN SULAWESI
Approximately 80 percent of Sulawesi's forests are either gone or degraded to some degree. Over 50 percent are considered in poor condition, while 30 percent—mostly in the highlands (above 1500 meters)—are classified as in good condition.
Over 95 percent of Sulawesi's mangrove forests and lowland forests are disturbed. In less than a decade—between the mid 1980s and 1993—Sulawesi mangroves have been decreased by over 60 percent in part due to aquaculture for seafood such as shrimp.
Wetlands have suffered even worse: 99 percent of the island's wetlands are either gone or damaged.
Current rates of forest loss are lower than much of Indonesia, but this is primarily because much of the island's lowland forest was already gone by as early as 1985.
Forest loss is due primarily to logging and conversion. Beginning in the 1970s the government began supporting large-scale logging and vast agricultural projects. Since then migrants from urban areas to the countryside have converted large tracks of forest into cash crops such as coffee and cacao.
| Million hectares | 2001 | 2010 | 2020 | Loss 2002-19 | % loss of 2001 cover |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary forest area | 9.8 | 9.5 | 9.0 | 0.8 | 8.2% |
| Tree cover area | 15.6 | 15.5 | 14.3 | 1.3 | 8.3% |
CURRENT THREATS
Large-scale loss of forest is not as big of a threat in Sulawesi as other islands in Indonesia, simply because there is relatively little forest left. However, deforestation of remaining forest would be catastrophic for the island's unique biodiversity, much of which are already threatened.
Since montane forests contain very few commercial species, they are relatively safe from loggers, but hunting, fires, and erosion due to cleared areas remain major threats.
Pollution and habitat destruction from mining poses a threat to biodiversity and ecosystem health. Mining is even reported to occur within the boundaries of protected areas.
Bushmeat hunting and poaching is a large issue for a number of endangered species, including anoa, babirusa, black crested macaques, and the maleo since its eggs are poached.
South Sulawesi, as opposed to north and central, is serviced by few parks and protected areas, leaving species and forests there particularly vulnerable.
PROTECTED AREAS
Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves.
Central Sulawesi contains the most well-known park on the island, Lore Lindu National Park spanning 229,000 hectares. It is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
On the northern peninsula, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park protects 300,000 square hectares, while Rawa Aopa Watmohai National Park protects 105,194 hectares in southeast Sulawesi.
Most of the parks, however, suffer frequent encroachment for illegal logging, mining, and even conversion into crops. Thousands of illegal gold miners have been found plying their trade in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park.
Sulawesi also has three national marine parks: Bunaken, Wakatobi, and Take Bonerate.
Bunaken National Park includes islands, mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. Taka Bonerate National Park protects the Taka Bonerate atoll (and surrounding coral reefs), the world's third largest atoll and the largest in Southeast Asia. Last but not least, Wakatobi National Park is made up of island chains and 25 coral reefs.
Babirusa
Forest and coconut plantation in North Sulawesi
Kingfisher
Crested black macaque
Crested black macaque
Flying dragon
Tarsier
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Indonesian rainforest in Sulawesi
Green Vine Snake
Male and Female Knobbed Hornbill
Strangler fig
Mother tarsier and baby
More images at the Sulawesi slideshow
CITATIONS:
Sulawesi conservation news
Plans for bauxite mine in Suriname reignite Indigenous land rights debate (16 Jan 2025 18:10:11 +0000)
- A bauxite mine run by Chinese corporation Chinalco could begin operating next year, endangering a 280,000-hectare (about 692,000 acres) area of western Suriname inhabited by Indigenous communities.
- The mine will require refurbishing and expanding infrastructure for a harbor and railroad built in the 1970s, and gives the company “priority right” to use the Corantijn river for dredging.
- Indigenous groups said they weren’t properly consulted about the project and that the government is unfairly labeling their territory as public domain.
Safeguarding the shea nut legacy for Ugandan women (16 Jan 2025 17:30:47 +0000)
KAL AWINYA, Uganda – In rural Uganda, 34-year-old Adong Betty from Kal Awinya village shares how shea nuts sustain her family and community. Her own childhood was marked by active participation in collecting and processing shea nuts with her mother, instilling in her a deep respect for this tradition. Shea nuts are a critical part […]
Should mining companies consider no-go zones where isolated Indigenous peoples live? (Commentary) (16 Jan 2025 16:48:05 +0000)
- Irresponsible mining for critical minerals, like those used in renewable technologies, can threaten the existence of Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation, who are amongst the world’s most vulnerable populations.
- Companies like Tesla are considering no-go zones where uncontacted people live. While the idea of establishing these zones is increasingly pragmatic, the author says the most crucial thing for companies to do is conduct rigorous human rights due diligence from the initial stages of mine development right through to closure.
- Danielle Martin from the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) says this approach relies on the meaningful and inclusive engagement and the participation of affected Indigenous peoples. But for Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation, engagement and participation may not be possible and agreement may not be attainable.
- This article is a commentary. The views expressed are those of the authors, not necessarily Mongabay.
Ogoni women restore mangroves and livelihoods in oil-rich Niger Delta (16 Jan 2025 15:50:40 +0000)
- After decades of crude oil spills and the introduction of invasive plant species, thousands of hectares of mangroves in the Niger Delta are destroyed, impacting aquatic species and women’s livelihoods.
- Ogoni women from coastal villages, supported by the Lokiaka Community Development Centre, have been at the forefront of reforestation efforts.
- The women have planted 2.6 million mangrove trees since 2018, drawing attention from a government agency that hired them to share their knowledge and plant mangroves for its oil spill rehabilitation project.
- Around 300 women from Ogoni communities have been trained in mangrove reforestation.
Elephants, gorillas and chimps hold out in Cameroon’s largest protected landscape (16 Jan 2025 14:42:45 +0000)
- A new survey finds that populations of forest elephants, lowland gorillas and chimpanzees have remained relatively stable in a large landscape in southeastern Cameroon.
- In some cases, populations actually rose significantly in the region’s protected areas, but declined on the outskirts.
- Officials attribute this “positive” trend to hard work and the implementation of a “permanent presence technique” to deter poaching by engaging more closely with local communities.
- However, they say more effort is still needed to combat poaching for tusks and the trafficking of great apes.
Satellite ‘backpacks’ help keep track of parrot migration in Mexico (16 Jan 2025 12:18:50 +0000)
- Scientists and conservationists have deployed lightweight satellite backpacks, containing transmitters, to study and understand the migration patterns of thick-billed parrots.
- Teams from San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance in the U.S. and conservation NGO Organización Vida Silvestre in Mexico have gathered more than 70,000 data points over four years.
- The data helped them identify corridors that are critical for the birds’ movements; they also served to justify the designation of protected areas that are important for the birds.
- Thick-billed parrots, known for their raucous calls, are an endangered species endemic to Mexico; illegal logging in recent years has led to the degradation of their habitats.
Vested interests and social tribes in the Pan Amazon (16 Jan 2025 11:58:56 +0000)
- Local and regional actors, particularly commercial and landowner elites in mid-sized cities, play an important role in the expansion and improvement of road networks. In Brazil, lobbying by private interests played a big role in the development of Rodovia Transamazônica and BR-319.
- In Brazil, agribusinesses exert political power via the Frente Parlamentar da Agropecuária (FPA), often referred to as the Bancada Ruralista, a multi-party congressional voting bloc.
- One of the most significant accomplishment of the ruralistas was their 2012 campaign to modify Brazil’s the Forest Code. Changes included amnesty for property owners who had illegally deforested land before 2008 and adjusted requirements to reforest portions of landholdings that had exceeded legal deforestation limits.
African Parks closes deal to manage Ethiopia’s Gambella National Park (16 Jan 2025 11:37:07 +0000)
- South Africa-based conservation NGO African Parks signed a long-term deal in December 2024 to manage Gambella National Park in Ethiopia.
- The agreement brings the number of protected areas under management by African Parks to 23 in 13 countries.
- Gambella is part of a wider landscape that includes Boma and Badilingo national parks, across the border in South Sudan.
- The Gambella region has been conflict-prone in recent years, with a documented history of human rights violations by the Ethiopian government and other groups.
Mongabay documentary spotlights Indigenous alliance to protect Amazon headwaters (16 Jan 2025 11:08:05 +0000)
Mongabay’s new short documentary The Time of Water premiered Dec. 16 at the Barcelona Center for Contemporary Culture, in Spain. Directed by Pablo Albarenga and produced with support from the Pulitzer Center and OpenDemocracy, the 18-minute documentary explores the Amazon Sacred Headwaters Alliance and its fight to protect one of the world’s most vital sources […]
1 lynx dead, 3 quarantined after suspected illegal release in Scotland (16 Jan 2025 09:09:31 +0000)
What started out as a reported sighting of a pair of Eurasian lynx in the Scottish Highlands has turned out to be an alleged case of “guerrilla rewilding” or, at the very least, illegal release of four individuals of a species long extinct in the area, media reports say. A pair of Eurasian lynx (Lynx […]
Serious groundwater contamination in several parts of India: Report (16 Jan 2025 08:24:03 +0000)
A recent analysis has revealed that India’s groundwater contains pollutants in excess of permissible limits. This contamination is driven by both natural geochemical processes and human activities like agricultural and industrial practices, reports contributor Esha Lohia for Mongabay India. To understand the state of groundwater in India, the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) assessed more […]
Mining in a forest conservation site clouds Republic of Congo’s carbon credit scheme (16 Jan 2025 08:00:32 +0000)
- The Republic of Congo set up a REDD+ program in the Sangha and Likouala regions, aiming to reduce deforestation and store carbon from 2020 through to 2024.
- However, in the Sangha region alone, the country’s mining minister has issued at least 79 semi-industrial gold mining and exploration permits since the project began.
- Scientists reviewing images of these mining activities condemn the “reckless” destruction of biodiversity.
- The government says the program stored more than 1.5 million metric tons of carbon in 2020, for which it expects to be paid more than $8 million from the World Bank.
Thai farmers demand action to restore ecosystems, compensate for invasive fish (16 Jan 2025 01:29:21 +0000)
- Citizens rallied in Bangkok this week demanding accountability and action from the government and private corporations following an outbreak of invasive fish that has ravaged Thailand’s freshwater ecosystems and aquaculture industry.
- Blackchin tilapia, an omnivorous species native to West Africa, is highly adaptable, breeds rapidly and is capable of outcompeting native wildlife and commercially farmed species, including shrimp.
- Thailand’s largest agricultural conglomerate has come under scrutiny because it obtained a permit to import the species in 2010, shortly before the first detections in the wild in the same province as its research facility.
- The activists urged the government to eradicate the species, compensate affected farmers and identity the parties responsible for the outbreak.
The paradox of balancing conservation efforts for Himalayan wolves and snow leopards (commentary) (15 Jan 2025 22:38:16 +0000)
- Although snow leopards cause greater livestock losses than Himalayan wolves, human communities generally show greater tolerance and acceptance toward snow leopards.
- This ‘predator paradox,’ where the more damaging predator is more tolerated, leads to less conservation support for wolves and more for snow leopards.
- “Both snow leopards and wolves are crucial to the Himalayan ecosystem, but conservation has overwhelmingly favored snow leopards. This disparity in attention and resources amplifies the challenges faced by wolves, highlighting the need for a balanced approach to conserve both species effectively,” a new op-ed argues.
- This post is a commentary. The views expressed are those of the author, not necessarily Mongabay.
Brazil’s Amazon shipping plan faces criticism for environmental and social impact (15 Jan 2025 17:12:04 +0000)
Brazil is set to approve a controversial expansion of 2,000 kilometers, or more than 1,200 miles, of new shipping channels in the Amazon. With a price tag in the billions of reais, the expansion is needed to ensure cheaper, more efficient transportation of agricultural commodities out of the Amazon, the government says. But an investigation by […]